Scotland is a land of inventions. The telephone, penicillin, the steam engine, and even the cloned sheep called Dolly all came from this small country in northern Europe. And here is a wonderful thing: almost every one of those facts contains a relative clause. “The scientist who discovered penicillin was Scottish.” “Dolly, which was the first cloned mammal, was born in Edinburgh.” In today’s B2 lesson, we are going to use Scotland — its people, its places and its extraordinary history — to master one of the most useful structures in English: the relative clause.
What is a Relative Clause?
A relative clause is a part of a sentence that gives more information about a noun. It is introduced by a relative pronoun (who, which, whose, where, when, that) or a relative adverb. Relative clauses come directly after the noun they describe.
Defining Relative Clauses
A defining relative clause (also called a restrictive clause) tells us which person, thing, place or time we are talking about. Without it, the sentence would be incomplete or unclear. There are no commas.
| Pronoun | Used for | Example |
|---|---|---|
who / that |
people | The scientist who discovered penicillin was born in Ayrshire. |
which / that |
things | The mountain that stands at 1,345 metres is Ben Nevis. |
whose |
possession | The country whose national animal is a unicorn is Scotland. |
where |
places | The institute where Dolly was cloned is in Edinburgh. |
when |
time | 1996 was the year when scientists first cloned a mammal. |
Notice that in defining clauses you can often use that instead of who or which — especially in informal English. However, you can never use that in a non-defining clause.
Non-Defining Relative Clauses
A non-defining clause (also called a non-restrictive clause) adds bonus information about a noun that is already clearly identified. Remove it and the sentence still makes perfect sense. The clause is separated from the main sentence by commas — think of them as brackets you can lift out.
1. Always use commas (before and after, unless the clause ends the sentence).
2. Never use that — use who, which, whose, where or when.
3. Never omit the relative pronoun (you can in defining clauses: “the book I read” = “the book that I read”).
| Pronoun | Used for | Example |
|---|---|---|
who |
people | Alexander Fleming, who was born in Ayrshire in 1881, discovered penicillin. |
which |
things / whole clauses | Dolly the sheep, which was the world’s first cloned mammal, was born in 1996. |
whose |
possession | James Watt, whose improvements to the steam engine changed history, was Scottish. |
where |
places | The Roslin Institute, where the cloning took place, is near Edinburgh. |
when |
time | The 18th century, when the Scottish Enlightenment flourished, produced thinkers like Adam Smith and David Hume. |
Scotland through a Relative Clause Lens
Scotland has given the world a remarkable number of inventions and discoveries — the perfect context for practising relative clauses, because each famous person or place carries identifying details and bonus facts in equal measure.
Alexander Graham Bell, who invented the telephone, was born in Edinburgh in 1847. Now notice: if I write “the inventor who was born in Edinburgh changed communication forever”, I am using a defining clause to identify which inventor I mean (there were many Scottish inventors). But if I write “Alexander Graham Bell, who was born in Edinburgh, invented the telephone”, the comma signals that the birthplace detail is simply extra colour — we already know exactly who he is.
Scotland has over 790 islands, which include the Hebrides, Orkney and Shetland. That “which” introduces a non-defining clause adding geographical detail about islands we already know (Scotland’s islands). Compare: “The islands that are inhabited number around 130.” Here the clause is defining — it narrows down from 790 to the specific 130 we mean.
Ben Nevis is the mountain that/which stands at 1,345 metres above sea level, making it the highest peak in the British Isles. This is a defining clause: without it, we could not identify which mountain. Ben Nevis, which attracts over 160,000 visitors a year, is in the Scottish Highlands. Here the clause becomes non-defining — we already know which mountain.
The Roslin Institute, where Dolly was created in 1996, is part of the University of Edinburgh. Dolly was the first mammal that was cloned from an adult somatic cell — a defining clause again, specifying exactly which type of mammal she was (not the first mammal, but the first cloned from an adult cell). These two clauses appear in the same topic but serve completely different functions, which is exactly why the comma rule matters so much.
Common Mistakes for Spanish Speakers
Watch out for these five errors
The film which I told you about (no extra pronoun — the relative already refers back)
The man who invented the telephone (relative pronoun replaces the subject — no extra “he”)
Alexander Fleming, who discovered penicillin… (never “that” in a non-defining clause)
The country whose national animal is a unicorn (no article after “whose”)
The city where I was born / The city in which I was born (no extra “there” — “where” already covers location)
Example Bank: Relative Clauses in Scotland
- Scotland is a country whose history stretches back more than ten thousand years.
- The unicorn, which has been Scotland’s national animal since the 12th century, represents strength and independence.
- Ben Nevis is the mountain that draws thousands of climbers every summer.
- James Watt, whose improvements to the steam engine helped launch the Industrial Revolution, was born in Greenock.
- The year when Alexander Graham Bell first transmitted speech over a wire was 1876.
- The Roslin Institute, where Dolly the sheep was created, is near Edinburgh.
- Dolly, who became world-famous overnight, lived until 2003.
- This is the same university where Charles Darwin briefly studied in the 1820s.
- The Highlands is a region whose landscapes appear in countless films and novels.
- The scientist who discovered penicillin changed the course of modern medicine.
- Loch Ness, which is the second-largest loch by surface area in Scotland, is famous worldwide.
- The legend that surrounds Loch Ness attracts tourists from every corner of the globe.
- Adam Smith, who wrote The Wealth of Nations in 1776, is considered the father of modern economics.
- The 18th century, when the Scottish Enlightenment was at its peak, produced some of the world’s greatest thinkers.
- Edinburgh Castle, which sits on an extinct volcano, has been a fortress for over a thousand years.
- There are over 790 Scottish islands, of which around 130 are permanently inhabited.
Quick Practice Quiz
Test Yourself
Choose the correct relative pronoun or decide whether commas are needed. (One question may have more than one correct answer.)
- The loch _____ is said to contain a monster is called Loch Ness. (who / which / that)
- Adam Smith, _____ wrote The Wealth of Nations, was born in Kirkcaldy. (who / that)
- Dolly was the first mammal _____ was cloned from an adult somatic cell. (which / that)
- Scotland _____ national animal is a unicorn joined England and Wales in 1707. (whose / who’s / that)
- Edinburgh Castle, _____ overlooks the whole city, was built on an extinct volcano. Add the missing relative pronoun. (that / which)
Show answer key
- which or that (no commas — defining clause identifying which loch)
- who (non-defining clause — commas essential; “that” is wrong here)
- which or that (defining clause; “who/that” not possible for a mammal in formal English)
- whose (possession; no commas — defining clause; “who’s” = who is, wrong)
- which (non-defining clause — commas already given; “that” cannot be used)
National Geographic Kids — Facts about Scotland ·
VisitScotland — Scottish Inventions ·
Britannica — Scotland ·
Wikipedia — List of Scottish Inventions and Discoveries