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Academic Linking Words
Essay Vocabulary · C1 Advanced · Indonesia

English Vocabulary · Level C1 · CLIL: Indonesia

Indonesia is the second most linguistically diverse nation on Earth, home to over 700 regional languages. Yet when Indonesian researchers publish their findings internationally — or when students write university essays in English — they rely on a small but powerful set of linking words to signal logic, contrast and nuance. At C1, mastering these connectors means knowing not just what they mean, but which grammatical structure follows each one, and which ones sound too informal for academic writing.

What is academic linking vocabulary?

Linking words (also called discourse markers or connectors) are the signposts of academic writing. They tell the reader how two ideas relate: are they adding up, contrasting, causing, exemplifying, or concluding? Without them, paragraphs become a series of disconnected facts. With them, your writing thinks out loud.

At B2 you already know words like however, therefore and although. At C1, the goal is threefold: to use a wider, more precise range of connectors; to use them with correct grammar and punctuation; and to use them where they genuinely serve the reader, not just to pad word count.

The golden rule: every linking word you use must accurately describe the relationship between two ideas. If you can remove it and the meaning stays the same, it is decorative — and decorative language weakens academic writing.

The core categories and how to use them

Function Connector What follows Register
Addition furthermore, moreover, in addition, what is more Comma + full clause Formal
Contrast (adverb) however, nevertheless, conversely, on the other hand Semi-colon or new sentence + comma after connector Formal
Contrast (preposition) despite, in spite of, notwithstanding Noun phrase or -ing verb — NOT a full clause Formal / very formal
Contrast (conjunction) although, even though, whereas, whilst Full clause (subject + verb) Neutral / formal
Cause owing to, due to, given (that), in light of Noun phrase, -ing clause, or full clause (with given that) Formal
Result consequently, therefore, hence, thus, accordingly, as a result Comma + full clause Formal
Exemplification for instance, to illustrate, a case in point is, namely, specifically Comma + example Neutral / formal
Clarification in other words, that is to say, to put it differently Comma + restatement Neutral
Emphasis crucially, significantly, notably, it is worth noting that, above all Comma + full clause, or integrated mid-sentence Formal
Concession admittedly, granted, it must be acknowledged that Comma + clause you concede, then contrast follows Formal
Conclusion in conclusion, ultimately, overall, on balance, to reiterate Comma + summary statement Formal

Notice that the contrast family has three different grammatical structures depending on the word you choose. This is where most learners make mistakes.

Indonesia in focus: linking ideas about the archipelago

Indonesia is the world’s largest archipelago nation — a country of over 17,000 islands stretching across 5,000 kilometres of ocean. It is, furthermore, one of the most ecologically and linguistically remarkable places on Earth. These are the kinds of facts that cry out for precise academic linking, because their complexity cannot be conveyed in simple sentences alone.

Biodiversity. Indonesia is home to approximately 10.4% of Earth’s species, ranking second globally after Brazil. Its coral reefs are, in particular, extraordinary: around 600 species of coral grow in Indonesian waters — roughly 70% of the world’s total coral diversity. Consequently, conservation scientists regularly describe Indonesia as a “megadiverse” nation, meaning that losing its ecosystems would have global, not merely local, consequences.

Language. Indonesia’s 718 regional languages make it the second most linguistically diverse nation after Papua New Guinea. Notwithstanding this staggering diversity, the national language — Bahasa Indonesia — has achieved near-universal reach: according to the 2020 census, over 97% of the population are fluent in it. This is, in other words, a country that manages both deep local identity and a powerful unifying language simultaneously — a combination that linguists find genuinely rare.

Higher education. Indonesia has over 4,000 higher education institutions. Nevertheless, only 35 of these appeared in the Times Higher Education World University Rankings 2026 — a ratio that highlights how much of the sector still operates below international visibility thresholds. Given that the Indonesian government has made World Class University status a strategic priority, the coming decade will be a key test of whether structural investment can close this gap.

Each of these contexts — biodiversity, language, education — provides a natural home for different families of connector. The ecology section demands cause-and-result language (consequently, as a result); the language section invites contrast and clarification (notwithstanding, in other words); the education section calls for concession and emphasis (nevertheless, crucially).

Common mistakes for Spanish speakers

1. “Despite” followed by a full clause

Despite is a preposition, not a conjunction. It must be followed by a noun phrase or an -ing verb — never a clause with a subject and finite verb.

✗ Despite Indonesia has 700 languages, most people speak Bahasa.
✓ Despite having 700 languages, most Indonesians speak Bahasa.
✓ Despite the country’s linguistic diversity, most Indonesians speak Bahasa.

To use a full clause, switch to although or even though.

2. “In the other hand” (calque from por otro lado)

The fixed English phrase is on the other hand, not in.

✗ In the other hand, Indonesia’s universities are improving.
✓ On the other hand, Indonesia’s universities are improving.

3. “By the contrary” (calque from por el contrario)

English does not use “by the contrary.” The correct alternatives are on the contrary or conversely.

✗ By the contrary, deforestation has increased.
✓ On the contrary, deforestation has increased.
✓ Conversely, deforestation has increased.

4. “However” without correct punctuation

However as a sentence connector needs a semi-colon (or a full stop) before it and a comma after it — it cannot join two clauses with just a comma.

✗ Indonesia is biodiverse, however it faces many threats.
✓ Indonesia is biodiverse; however, it faces many threats.
✓ Indonesia is biodiverse. However, it faces many threats.

5. “Notwithstanding” used as a standalone adverb like “however”

Notwithstanding is a preposition (or occasionally a conjunction), not a simple adverb. It must have an object — it cannot stand alone at the start of a sentence the way however can.

✗ Notwithstanding, Indonesia’s coral reefs are under threat.
✓ Notwithstanding the government’s conservation efforts, coral reefs remain under threat.

Example bank: 20 sentences in the Indonesia context

  1. Indonesia is home to over 700 regional languages; furthermore, it contains approximately 70% of the world’s coral diversity.
  2. Bahasa Indonesia was adopted as the national language in 1945; consequently, a shared means of communication gradually spread across 17,000 islands.
  3. Despite having hundreds of distinct regional languages, Indonesia has achieved near-universal fluency in its national language.
  4. Indonesia’s coral reefs are extraordinary; however, they face severe threats from rising sea temperatures and pollution.
  5. Universitas Indonesia has increased its international research output considerably; nevertheless, challenges in funding and infrastructure remain significant.
  6. Indonesia is the second most linguistically diverse nation on Earth — a case in point is the island of Papua alone, which contains over 200 distinct languages.
  7. The Indonesian government has invested heavily in higher education; as a result, 35 universities now appear in the Times Higher Education World Rankings 2026.
  8. Javanese, with approximately 84 million speakers, is the largest regional language, whereas Bahasa Indonesia functions as the unifying national tongue across all communities.
  9. Owing to the extraordinary biodiversity of the archipelago, Indonesia has become a focal point for international conservation biology research.
  10. In light of Indonesia’s extraordinary marine biodiversity, conservation scientists argue that additional marine protected areas are urgently needed.
  11. It is worth noting that Indonesia’s 4,000-plus higher education institutions serve a population of over 270 million people across more than 17,000 islands.
  12. Notwithstanding the linguistic diversity of the archipelago, Bahasa Indonesia has proven remarkably effective as a unifying national language since its adoption in 1945.
  13. The Komodo dragon exists nowhere else on Earth; in other words, Indonesia alone is responsible for the survival of this species.
  14. Indonesian universities are increasingly publishing in English. Moreover, several have established dedicated English for Research Writing programmes to support their researchers.
  15. Indonesia’s coral reefs are under severe threat; accordingly, marine biologists are collaborating with international partners to develop long-term conservation strategies.
  16. Although Indonesia accounts for over 10% of Earth’s species, a significant proportion of those species remain undiscovered and uncatalogued.
  17. Given that the archipelago spans 5,000 kilometres from west to east, regional cultures in Indonesia vary enormously in language, cuisine and tradition.
  18. Bahasa Indonesia is, admittedly, a relatively recent standardised language — it was codified in the 20th century. Nevertheless, it has achieved an extraordinary breadth of use.
  19. The Javan rhinoceros is critically endangered; specifically, fewer than 80 individuals are believed to survive in Ujung Kulon National Park on the island of Java.
  20. On balance, Indonesia’s higher education sector has made meaningful progress over the past decade; ultimately, however, sustained public investment will determine whether that progress continues.

Quick practice quiz

Choose the best answer for each question.

  1. Indonesia has extraordinary biodiversity. _______, many species remain undiscovered.
    A) Despite   B) Nevertheless   C) Owing to   D) In other words
  2. Which sentence uses “despite” correctly?
    A) Despite there are 700 languages, Indonesians communicate in Bahasa.
    B) Despite having 700 languages, Indonesians communicate in Bahasa.
    C) Despite of having 700 languages, Indonesians communicate in Bahasa.
    D) Despite to the 700 languages, Indonesians communicate in Bahasa.
  3. Indonesian universities publish more research. _______, funding remains limited.
    A) Consequently   B) Furthermore   C) Nevertheless   D) Given that
  4. “Indonesia accounts for 10% of Earth’s species — _______, it is classed as a megadiverse nation.” Which connector fits best?
    A) however   B) notwithstanding   C) in other words   D) admittedly
  5. Which sentence has correct punctuation around “however”?
    A) Indonesia is biodiverse, however it faces threats.
    B) Indonesia is biodiverse; however, it faces threats.
    C) Indonesia is biodiverse however, it faces threats.
    D) Indonesia is biodiverse however it faces threats.
Show answer key
  1. B — Nevertheless. The second sentence contrasts with the first (extraordinary biodiversity, yet many species unknown). “Nevertheless” signals this concessive contrast. “Despite” cannot start an independent clause here; “owing to” shows cause, not contrast.
  2. B — Despite having 700 languages. “Despite” requires a noun phrase or -ing verb, not a full clause (eliminates A), no “of” after despite (eliminates C), and no infinitive (eliminates D).
  3. C — Nevertheless. The first clause is positive (more research). The second clause is a contrasting limitation (funding). “Nevertheless” = despite what was just said, this other thing is still true. “Consequently” would mean funding is limited because of more research — the opposite of the intended meaning.
  4. C — in other words. The second part clarifies and renames what was said in the first — “being megadiverse” is another way of saying “10% of Earth’s species.” That is exactly the function of “in other words.”
  5. B — Indonesia is biodiverse; however, it faces threats. “However” as a sentence connector needs a semi-colon (or full stop) before it and a comma after it. A comma alone before “however” is a comma splice (A); no comma after “however” is also wrong (C, D).

Related lessons to read next

Sources —
UNEP-GRID: Indonesia Biodiversity Country Profile ·
Mongabay: Top 10 Most Biodiverse Countries ·
IndoLingua: How Many Languages Are Spoken in Indonesia? ·
AsiaLocalize: Languages Spoken in Indonesia: 700+ Explained ·
Wikipedia: List of Universities in Indonesia ·
Times Higher Education / uniRank 2026 rankings data via ANTARA News and ums.ac.id.

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Take it further: Once you have mastered linking vocabulary, see how register shapes every word choice in Formal vs Informal Register: C1 Vocabulary Guide — with South African examples and a full vocabulary bank.